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Persian Art or Iranian Art: What Each Word Means

Where the two words come from, and how museums and galleries use them.

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Persian and Iranian name the same country and much of the same art. Persian comes from Persis, the Greek form of Pars, a province in southern Iran now called Fars, which Greek writers extended to the whole country; Iran is the name the country's own people used, and in 1934 the government told foreign governments to use it from 21 March 1935. In the museum names checked for this page, Persian is used most for the language and for the traditions built on it, such as Persian poetry, Persian painting and the Persian carpet, while Iran and Iranian are used for the country, its regions in a gallery plan, and its modern and contemporary art. Iranian is also the word for the nationality of living people.

This page explains where each word comes from, what happened in 1935, and how the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Aga Khan Museum, LACMA and other museums use the two words today. It is part of our guide to contemporary Iranian and Persian painting.

Key takeaways

  • Britannica says the name Persia came from the region of southern Iran called Persis, Pars or Parsa, modern Fars, and that the ancient Greeks and others gradually extended it to the whole Iranian plateau.
  • The Encyclopaedia Iranica says the word eran, the root of the modern name Iran, is first recorded in the titles of Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian dynasty, on his rock relief at Naqsh-e Rostam in Fars.
  • The UK National Archives records that in 1934 the Persian government told foreign governments that from 21 March 1935 the country should be called Iran, to correct what its note called an "etymological and historical inexactitude".
  • The same National Archives file shows that in January 1952 the Shah accepted foreign use of "Persia" and "Perse" in foreign languages, so both names stayed in English.
  • The Met opened its "Galleries for the Art of the Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and Later South Asia" in 2011; its press release calls two of them "a chronological overview of the art of the Persian world".
  • The Met's educator guide says Persian is an Indo-European language, like English or French, written in the Arabic alphabet.

Where the word Persian comes from

Britannica's entry on Persia says the term "originated from a region of southern Iran formerly known as Persis, alternatively as Pars or Parsa, modern Fars", and that "the use of the name was gradually extended by the ancient Greeks and other peoples to apply to the whole Iranian plateau". Persis is the Greek form of the name, and Britannica gives Fars as its modern form.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art's essay on the Achaemenid Persian Empire, which lasted from 550 to 330 BC, calls Cyrus II "king of Persia" and describes an empire that stretched "from Anatolia and Egypt across western Asia to northern India and Central Asia". Darius I built a new dynastic centre at Persepolis. The Met notes that "much of our evidence for Persian history is dependent on contemporary Greek sources and later classical writers". The Persian government made a related point in 1934, when it traced the name Persia to the word used by Greek historians.

The Persians themselves used another word as well. The Encyclopaedia Iranica entry on Iranian identity by Gherardo Gnoli says the inscriptions of Darius I and Xerxes show that the Persians already saw themselves as belonging to the ariya, or "Iranian", nation. Darius and Xerxes called themselves "ariya" and "ariya cica", which Gnoli translates as "Iranian" and "of Iranian stock". Gnoli adds that Herodotus reported that the Medes once called themselves Arioi.

Where the word Iran comes from

The modern name grew from that older word. The Encyclopaedia Iranica entry "ERAN, ERANSAHR" by D. N. MacKenzie says the word eran is first recorded in the titles of Ardashir I, who founded the Sasanian dynasty. On his investiture relief at Naqsh-e Rostam in Fars, and then on his coins, he is called "shahan shah eran", which Gnoli translates as "King of Kings of the Iranians". The Met's essay on the Sasanian Empire says Ardashir defeated the Parthians in 224 and that the Sasanians "saw themselves as the successors of the Achaemenid Persians".

MacKenzie explains that eran was a plural meaning "of the Iranians", and that eranshahr, "the kingdom of the Iranians", named the empire. He concludes that the term Eranshahr "was evidently an invention of the Sasanians". In the Sasanian list of the empire's provinces, Pars, which the Greeks called Persis, is one province among many, alongside Parthia, Media, Khorasan and others. In early New Persian writing, MacKenzie writes, the common name for the land had become eran, also "eran zamin" and "shahr-e eran", and its people were called erani.

So the two names were both old when the modern question arose. Persia was the name outsiders took from one province. Iran was the name the people of the country had used since at least the third century.

The 1935 request to use "Iran"

A blog post by Dr Juliette Desplat of the UK National Archives, written from Foreign Office files, sets out what happened. In 1934 the Persian government "informed foreigners that from 21 March 1935 Persia should be officially called Iran". The British minister in Tehran wrote to London on 28 December 1934 about the note asking Britain to say "Iran" and "Iranian" instead of "Persia" and "Persian". The Persian Ministry for Foreign Affairs explained that it wished to correct an "etymological and historical inexactitude", a mistranslation based on the word used by Greek historians.

Ali Mirsepassi, in the introduction to his book The Discovery of Iran, published by Stanford University Press, dates the foreign minister's demand to 4 December 1934, with three months' notice. He reports that the scholar Saeed Nafisi defended the change in the Tehran daily Ettela'at on 10 December 1934, arguing that the name Iran better described a nation of many peoples, in which Pars was "only one region". The National Archives file records other reasons in the government's circular: an appeal to the idea of an Aryan homeland, and a wish to leave behind the images of weakness that the word "Perse" called up for the nineteenth century.

The Persian minister in London, Hussein 'Ala, wrote to The Times on 29 January 1935: "What we are doing is simply to ask others to speak and write of us by our real name, by the name we have always used ourselves." On 18 March 1935 he wrote to the Foreign Secretary asking that letters be addressed to the "Iranian Minister" or the "Imperial Iranian Legation". According to the National Archives, companies with Persia in their names, including the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and the Imperial Bank of Persia, all changed their names. The date chosen, 21 March, is the first day of the month Farvardin, which the Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art gives as the day of Nowruz, the Persian new year.

English kept the older word. The same National Archives post records that in 1941 Winston Churchill asked for "Persia" in internal British correspondence, to avoid confusion between Iran and Iraq. In January 1952 the British embassy in Tehran reported that "the Shah had agreed to accept the use of the words 'Persia' and 'Perse' as a designation for Iran in foreign languages". The Foreign Office went on filing papers under Persia until 1959. English has therefore kept both words, and art writing uses both.

Persian as the name of a language

In English, the language of Iran is called Persian. The Encyclopaedia Iranica entry "PERSIAN LANGUAGE i. Early New Persian" by Ludwig Paul describes two early forms. Parsi was spoken in the province of Fars and used by Zoroastrian priests; Dari was spoken at the Sasanian court and in Khorasan, in the northeast. Paul notes that the poet Naser Khosrow used the name Farsi for the language in the 1040s. Statistics Canada lists the language as "Persian (Farsi)", treating the two names as one.

Paul also explains why the word Persian reaches beyond Iran. From the 11th to the 19th century, Persian was a main carrier of culture "in a vast area spanning Anatolia in the west up to the fringes of China in the east", and it shaped the courts of Turkic, Mongol and Indian rulers. The Met's educator guide adds that Persian is "an Indo-European language, like English or French", and that it was written in the Arabic alphabet. The Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art gives an example of that reach: by 1430 nastaliq, the script developed in Iran for copying Persian verse, was used "from Istanbul to Delhi and from Bukhara to Baghdad".

Canada's census uses both words. The Statistics Canada 2021 Census profile lists "Iranian" and "Persian" as two separate ethnic or cultural origins. Under languages, it groups "Iranian Persian", "Dari" and "Persian (Farsi), n.o.s." together as "Persian languages". Our page on Persian-Canadian artists gives the census figures for Vancouver, Toronto and Montreal.

How museums name their galleries and exhibitions

Five of the institutions below frame their historical collections as Islamic art or the arts of Muslim civilizations, and several have titled exhibitions with Iran or Persian. Our page on Persian art and Islamic art explains why. The table below shows the words each institution uses, from its own pages.

How eight institutions use Persian, Iran and Iranian in the names of departments, galleries and exhibitions
Institution Name used What the name covers Source
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Department of Islamic Art; Galleries for the Art of the Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and Later South Asia Fifteen galleries opened in 2011, including "Iran and Central Asia (13th to 16th centuries)" and "Safavid and Later Iran (16th to 20th centuries)" Met press release, 2011
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art Essays on the Achaemenid Persian Empire and the Sasanian Empire are published by this department Met essays
Aga Khan Museum, Toronto Arts of Muslim civilizations A collection of more than 1,200 works from the 9th to the 21st century; its Wagner carpet page calls the carpet one of the oldest surviving Persian garden carpets, made in 17th-century Kirman, Iran Aga Khan Museum
LACMA, Los Angeles Islamic art; In the Fields of Empty Days: The Intersection of Past and Present in Iranian Art A 2018 exhibition of 125 works, from illustrated manuscripts to video and political cartoons LACMA
British Museum, London Albukhary Foundation Gallery of the Islamic world Material from the seventh century to the present, from West Africa to Southeast Asia British Museum
Victoria and Albert Museum, London Epic Iran An exhibition of 5,000 years of art, design and culture, held from 29 May to 12 September 2021 V&A
Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art, Washington The Shahnama: 1000 Years of the Persian Book of Kings; Arts of the Islamic World An exhibition of Shahnama paintings from the 14th to 16th centuries, held from 23 October 2010 to 17 April 2011; the collection label on its record for a Persian manuscript page of the Jalayirid period Smithsonian
Asia Society, New York Iran Modern Modern art from the three decades before the 1979 revolution, shown from 6 September 2013 to 5 January 2014 Asia Society

The Met

The Met's Department of Islamic Art page says the museum split its Ancient Near Eastern and Islamic collections into two departments in 1963. Iran appears in both. The Met's essays on Persepolis and on Sasanian silver come from its ancient department, while art made in Iran from the seventh century onward is shown in the Islamic galleries. The 2011 press release names the galleries by region, with Iran in the title, and then describes the two Iran galleries as "a chronological overview of the art of the Persian world". The same release calls the Emperor's Carpet "an exceptional classical Persian carpet of the 16th century" and announces a facsimile titled The Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp: The Persian Book of Kings. The Met uses Iran for the place and Persian for the carpet, the book and the wider world of Persian culture.

The Aga Khan Museum

The Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, which opened on 18 September 2014, describes its subject as "the arts of Muslim civilizations". Its collection, assembled at its core by Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, spans "from Spain and North Africa in the west, across the Middle East, to South Asia and China in the east". Within that frame, its page on the Wagner Garden Carpet uses both words in one sentence: a carpet "made in 17th-century Kirman, Iran" that is "one of the oldest surviving Persian garden carpets". The place is Iran, and the type of object is Persian.

LACMA

LACMA presents its historical collection as Islamic art, with works from "southern Spain to Central Asia". In 2018 it titled a large exhibition In the Fields of Empty Days: The Intersection of Past and Present in Iranian Art. That show put historical illustrated manuscripts beside contemporary photography, video, posters and political cartoons, and the word Iranian covered all of them. LACMA's Islamic Art Now exhibition, which opened on 1 February 2015, showed contemporary work by artists "from Iran and the Arab world", including Shirin Neshat, under the heading of Islamic art.

Other museums

The British Museum names its gallery for the whole Islamic world. The V&A called its 2021 survey Epic Iran and used it for 5,000 years of art, design and culture, up to a work by Parviz Tanavoli of 1964 to 1966. The Smithsonian titled its 2010 exhibition The Shahnama: 1000 Years of the Persian Book of Kings, and it catalogues a Persian manuscript page of the Jalayirid period (1340 to 1432) under "Arts of the Islamic World". The Asia Society used Iran Modern for art of the three decades before the 1979 revolution. Our page on where to see Persian art in Canada and the USA lists the museums with work on view.

How the two words apply to art

Read together, these names show a pattern of use. The pattern below is our reading of the table.

Persian: the language and the traditions built on it

Persian is the usual word for anything that depends on the Persian language or on the long court traditions of the Persian-speaking world: Persian poetry, Persian calligraphy, the Persian book, Persian miniature painting and the Persian carpet. Persian painting was made in Herat and Bukhara as well as Tabriz and Isfahan, and nastaliq was written from Istanbul to Delhi, so a word tied to the language fits them better than a word tied to the modern border. Our pages on Persian miniature painting and Persian calligraphy in painting use the word in this sense.

Iran and Iranian: the country, the modern period and people

Iran is the name of the country, and museums use it in gallery plans to mark a region. Iranian is the usual word for modern and contemporary art made in or from the country since the twentieth century, as in Iran Modern, and for the nationality of a living person, as in "Iranian-Canadian". Our page on modern Iranian art follows this use.

Where both words meet

Many works fit both. A living painter can have Iranian nationality and paint in the Persian miniature tradition. A carpet can be Persian as a type and come from a named city in Iran. LACMA's 2018 exhibition used "Iranian art" for historical manuscripts as well as new work. When a museum label uses one word, it is naming one side of a work that carries both.

Using the words well

For anyone writing about a painting, or reading a dealer's description, three habits help.

  • Use Persian for the tradition, the language, the script or the story: a Persian miniature, nastaliq script, a scene from the Persian epic, the Shahnameh.
  • Use Iranian for a person's nationality only when the artist or a reliable source states it.
  • Use Iran for places and dates: made in Isfahan, Iran, in the 17th century.

For a collector, the country a work comes from also matters in paperwork. Our page on how to buy contemporary Iranian art explains the Canadian and American sanctions rules for art from Iran. The Persian art glossary defines the other terms that appear on labels and in sale descriptions.

The two words in our gallery

Our own artist pages follow the same pattern. The page for Kamal al-Din Ghotb describes him as a "Persian miniature painter (negargari)" who has practised Persian painting for 41 years and works in oil and gold on paper; his works are in the Kamal al-Din Ghotb collection. The page for Melina Ghaemi describes her as an "Iranian-Canadian abstract expressionist" and lists "Persian calligraphic gesture" among her inspirations: Iranian names her background, and Persian names a tradition she draws on. The page for Amir Fazelian says he "reimagines Persian mythology", naming the Shahnameh among his sources.

Frequently asked questions

Are Persian and Iranian the same thing?

Persian and Iranian refer to the same country and overlap in meaning, but each has a main use. Persian comes from Persis, the Greek name for the province of Pars, now Fars, and is the usual English word for the language and the traditions built on it. Iranian comes from Iran, the name the country's people used for their land since Sasanian times, and is the usual word for the modern country and nationality.

Why did Persia change its name to Iran in 1935?

Persia asked foreign governments in 1934 to use Iran, the name Iranians already used for their country, from 21 March 1935. The UK National Archives records that the request aimed to correct an "etymological and historical inexactitude" based on the word of Greek historians. Ali Mirsepassi reports that Saeed Nafisi argued Pars was only one region of a nation of many peoples.

Is it still correct to say Persia in English?

Persia remains correct English for the country in historical writing, and the Iranian government accepted it. The UK National Archives records that in January 1952 the Shah agreed to foreign use of "Persia" and "Perse" in foreign languages. Museums still use Persian in titles such as the Smithsonian's The Shahnama: 1000 Years of the Persian Book of Kings, and Iran for the modern country.

Where does the word Persia come from?

The word Persia comes from Persis, the Greek form of Pars or Parsa, a region in southern Iran now called Fars. Britannica says the ancient Greeks and other peoples gradually extended the name to the whole Iranian plateau. The Met notes that much of the evidence for early Persian history comes from Greek writers, which helped the Greek form spread through European languages.

How old is the name Iran?

The name Iran is at least 1,800 years old. The Encyclopaedia Iranica says the word eran first appears in the titles of Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian dynasty, on his rock relief at Naqsh-e Rostam and on his coins. Ardashir defeated the Parthians in 224, according to the Met. An older form, ariya, appears in the inscriptions of Darius I and Xerxes.

Is Farsi the same as Persian?

Farsi and Persian are two names for the same language, and Statistics Canada lists it as "Persian (Farsi)". The Encyclopaedia Iranica notes that the poet Naser Khosrow used the name Farsi in the 1040s, and that an early form called Parsi was spoken in the province of Fars. Statistics Canada's 2021 Census groups "Iranian Persian", "Dari" and "Persian (Farsi), n.o.s." together under "Persian languages", so Dari is counted as a form of Persian too.

Why does the Met call its galleries Art of the Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and Later South Asia?

The Met chose regional names for the 15 Islamic galleries it opened in 2011. Its director said in the press release that the "new geographic orientation" recognizes that Islam connected a vast area without creating "a single, monolithic artistic expression". The galleries still house the collection of the Department of Islamic Art. Two of them, on Iran and Central Asia and on Safavid and later Iran, cover what the release calls "the art of the Persian world".

Which department of the Met holds ancient Persian art?

Ancient Persian art at the Met is covered by its Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, which wrote the Met's essays on the Achaemenid Persian Empire, 550 to 330 BC, and the Sasanian Empire, 224 to 651, including its silver. The Met separated its ancient Near Eastern and Islamic collections in 1963. Art made in Iran after the Arab conquest is shown in the Islamic galleries.

What does the Aga Khan Museum call the art it shows?

The Aga Khan Museum in Toronto describes its subject as the arts of Muslim civilizations, from the 9th to the 21st century and from Spain to China. Within that frame it uses Iran for places and Persian for types of object. Its page on the Wagner Garden Carpet describes a carpet made in 17th-century Kirman, Iran, as one of the oldest surviving Persian garden carpets.

Should a painting by a living artist be called Persian or Iranian?

A painting by a living artist can be called Persian when it follows a Persian tradition, such as the miniature, calligraphy or the Shahnameh, and Iranian when the artist's nationality or the modern country is meant. Each word describes a different side of the work. The artist's nationality should come from the artist or a reliable source, and a Persian tradition can be practised anywhere.

Why did British companies with Persia in their names change them in 1935?

British companies with Persia in their names changed them after the Iranian government asked foreign governments to use Iran from 21 March 1935. The UK National Archives records that the Foreign Office left the choice to the companies, and that they all changed their names. The best-known examples were the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and the Imperial Bank of Persia.

References

  1. Persia. Britannica Editors, Encyclopaedia Britannica. Last updated 28 July 2026; Internet Archive copy of 4 September 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The origin of the name Persia in Persis, Pars and Fars, and its extension to the whole plateau.
  2. ERAN, ERANSAHR (English: Iran, the kingdom of Iran). D. N. MacKenzie, Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published 15 December 1998; Internet Archive copy of 1 September 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The first record of the word eran under Ardashir I, its meaning, the Sasanian list of provinces and the later names for the land.
  3. IRANIAN IDENTITY ii. Pre-Islamic Period. Gherardo Gnoli, Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published 15 December 2006; Internet Archive copy of 29 July 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The word ariya in the inscriptions of Darius I and Xerxes, Herodotus on the Medes, and the Sasanian royal title.
  4. From Persia to Iran, via Inglistan. Dr Juliette Desplat, The National Archives (UK). Published 15 June 2017; Internet Archive copy of 23 April 2025. Accessed 27 September 2026. The 1934 note, the 21 March 1935 date, the reasons given, Hussein 'Ala's letters, the company names, Churchill's 1941 minute and the 1952 and 1959 records.
  5. The Discovery of Iran: Taghi Arani, a Radical Cosmopolitan (introduction excerpt). Ali Mirsepassi, Stanford University Press. Undated excerpt; Internet Archive copy of 24 March 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The foreign minister's demand of 4 December 1934 and Saeed Nafisi's article of 10 December 1934.
  6. PERSIAN LANGUAGE i. Early New Persian. Ludwig Paul, Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published 1 January 2000; Internet Archive copy of 6 August 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. Parsi and Dari, the name Farsi in the 11th century, and the spread of Persian from Anatolia to the edge of China.
  7. Frequently Asked Questions (Art of the Islamic World: A Resource for Educators). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Undated; Internet Archive copy of 17 November 2025. Accessed 27 September 2026. Persian as an Indo-European language written in the Arabic alphabet.
  8. The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550 to 330 B.C.). Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Published October 2004; Internet Archive copy of 6 April 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. Cyrus II as king of Persia, Persepolis, and the Greek sources for Persian history.
  9. The Sasanian Empire (224 to 651 A.D.). Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art and Blair Fowlkes-Childs, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Published October 2003, revised April 2016; Internet Archive copy of 15 March 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. Ardashir I's victory over the Parthians and the Sasanians as successors of the Achaemenids.
  10. Metropolitan Museum to Open Renovated Galleries for the Art of the Arab Lands, Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and Later South Asia. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Galleries opened 1 November 2011; Internet Archive copy of 6 June 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The gallery names, the "art of the Persian world", the Emperor's Carpet and the Shahnama facsimile title.
  11. Islamic Art (department page). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Undated; Internet Archive copy of 31 August 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The 1963 division of the Ancient Near Eastern and Islamic collections.
  12. Collections. Aga Khan Museum. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The museum's description of its collection and its geographic range.
  13. Our History. Aga Khan Museum. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The opening date of 18 September 2014.
  14. Paradise Garden: The Wagner Garden Carpet from the Burrell Collection, Glasgow. Aga Khan Museum. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The use of Iran and Persian in the description of one carpet.
  15. In the Fields of Empty Days: The Intersection of Past and Present in Iranian Art. Los Angeles County Museum of Art. 2018. Accessed 27 September 2026. The exhibition title, its 125 works and its range of media.
  16. Islamic Art Now: Contemporary Art of the Middle East (press release). Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Exhibition opened 1 February 2015. Accessed 27 September 2026. Contemporary artists from Iran shown under the heading of Islamic art.
  17. The Albukhary Foundation Gallery of the Islamic world. The British Museum. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The gallery name and the range of its collection.
  18. Epic Iran. Victoria and Albert Museum. 2021. Accessed 27 September 2026. The exhibition title, its dates and its span of 5,000 years.
  19. The Shahnama: 1000 Years of the Persian Book of Kings. Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art. Undated; Internet Archive copy of 29 March 2025. Accessed 27 September 2026. The exhibition title and Nowruz on the first of Farvardin, 21 March.
  20. Nasta'liq: The Genius of Persian Calligraphy. Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art. Exhibition held 13 September 2014 to 3 May 2015; Internet Archive copy of 9 November 2025. Accessed 27 September 2026. The spread of nastaliq across the Persian-speaking world by 1430.
  21. Folio from a Khusraw u Shirin by Nizami; recto: Sun-burst medallion (Shamsa). Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art, F1931.37. Undated; Internet Archive copy of 30 March 2025. Accessed 27 September 2026. A Persian manuscript page catalogued under "Arts of the Islamic World".
  22. Iran Modern. Asia Society. 2013; Internet Archive copy of 15 September 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The exhibition title, dates and period covered.
  23. A Note on Persian Miniature Painting: Materials and Techniques. Anahita Alavi, British Institute of Persian Studies. Published 22 October 2019. Accessed 27 September 2026. The centres of Persian painting, including Tabriz, Herat, Bukhara and Isfahan.
  24. Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population: Canada. Statistics Canada. Released 2022 to 2023. Accessed 27 September 2026. The separate "Iranian" and "Persian" origins and the "Persian languages" group.
  25. Kamal al-Din Ghotb. VanArtHub. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The gallery's description of the painter and his practice.
  26. Melina Ghaemi. VanArtHub. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The gallery's description of the painter and her inspirations.
  27. Amir Fazelian. VanArtHub. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The gallery's description of his work and sources.

Checked 27 September 2026. If something here is out of date, write to us and we will correct it.

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