Qajar Painting: Portraits, Oil and the Court of the Shahs

Qajar painting is the art of the Persian court under the Qajar dynasty, which the Brooklyn Museum dates 1785 to 1925. Its best-known works are life-size oil portraits of Fath-Ali Shah, who ruled from 1797 to 1834, painted by court artists such as Mirza Baba, Mihr Ali and Abdallah Khan to hang in his palaces or to travel abroad as gifts to foreign rulers. The same painters worked in miniature, painted lacquer, enamel and painting under glass, and later in the century photography and European academic training changed how Persian painters worked.

This page covers the royal portraits, the painters, the pictures of women, the arrival of photography, the smaller painted objects, and the museums that hold Qajar painting. It ends with what a buyer should check before buying Qajar art. It is part of our guide to contemporary Iranian and Persian painting.

Key takeaways

• The Metropolitan Museum of Art says Fath-Ali Shah commissioned great numbers of life-size portraits of himself and his sons for his palaces and hunting lodges, and describes them as "icons of power" with dark, rich colours and idealized features.
• The Victoria and Albert Museum holds a full-length oil portrait of Fath-Ali Shah, 233.9 cm high, which it attributes to Abdallah Khan and which was described at purchase in 1876 as "From the Shah's palace at Tehran".
• The Encyclopaedia Iranica says Mihr Ali painted a portrait of the king that Napoleon's envoy Jaubert carried to Paris; the Louvre's record for its portrait of Fath-Ali Shah, attributed to Mihr Ali and dated 1800 to 1806, cites Jaubert's travel account.
• The Met says photography reached Iran in the early 1840s and that, under its influence, portrait painters paid closer attention to modelling, shading and the psychology of their sitters.
• The Met says Muhammad Ghaffari, known as Kamal-ol-Molk (1852 to 1940), opened Iran's first Academy of Fine Arts in 1911.
• The Brooklyn Museum's 1998 exhibition Royal Persian Paintings: The Qajar Epoch, 1785 to 1925 showed 106 works, with loans that included 13 oil paintings from the State Hermitage Museum.

The Qajar period and its dates

The Met says the Qajars reunified a country that had been divided among rival groups since the fall of the Safavids in 1722; the Brooklyn Museum describes the short Afsharid and Zand periods in between. Museums date the Qajar period in two ways. The Met gives the dynasty as 1779 to 1924, and 1779 is the year the Zand ruler Karim Khan died, according to the Encyclopaedia Iranica. The Brooklyn Museum uses 1785 to 1925. The Met gives 1785 to 1797 as the reign of the first Qajar shah, Agha Muhammad.

The Met's essays describe two sides to Qajar art. One side drew on Persia's ancient kings. Fath-Ali Shah had life-size rock reliefs of himself carved at Taq-e Bostan and Rayy, at sites where the ancient kings had carved their own portraits, and commissioned the Shahanshahnama, a poem modelled on Ferdowsi's Shahnameh. The other side drew on Europe: oil painting, lithography, photography and, from 1851, a college on European lines. The Encyclopaedia Iranica entry by Jennifer M. Scarce says Qajar art continues Persian tradition while also recording the changes of nineteenth-century Persia.

Oil painting was already in use when the Qajars came to power. The V&A says painting in oils was introduced into Iran after 1600, when the country had strong commercial links with Europe, and came back into wide use under the Qajars. The Brooklyn Museum adds that the tradition of life-size painting was revived in Shiraz under the Zand ruler Karim Khan, where painters learned skills that were later used in the Qajar palaces. Our page on the history of Persian art places the period in the longer story.

The life-size portraits of Fath-Ali Shah

Fath-Ali Shah was the second Qajar ruler. The Encyclopaedia Iranica calls him the first Qajar to act as a patron of the arts, meaning a ruler who commissions and pays for art. The Met says he built the Negarestan and Golestan palaces in Tehran and filled them with life-size portraits of himself and his sons. These paintings formed the backdrop to court ceremonies, and a visitor saw them after passing through a planned series of courtyards, gardens and gateways. Court painters made cycles of several paintings that showed the shah as ruler, warrior and hunter.

The portraits also went abroad. The Met says official portraits were sent to England, Russia and France, and were copied in lacquer and enamel. The Encyclopaedia Iranica entry by B. W. Robinson traces several of them. Mirza Baba's life-size portrait of the king, dated 1798 to 1799, was presented to the East India Company in 1806. A portrait by Mihr Ali went to the rulers of Sind in 1800, and Robinson cites Sir John Malcolm's Sketches of Persia, which describes the local governor and villagers bowing down as the boxed painting was loaded onto a ship at Bushehr. Another portrait by Mihr Ali went to Napoleon with his envoy Pierre-Amédée Jaubert. Robinson, writing in 1986, placed that painting in the museum at Versailles. The Louvre now lists a Portrait of Fath Ali Shah, oil on canvas, attributed to Mihr Ali and dated 1800 to 1806, under inventory number MV 6358, and its bibliography includes Jaubert's account of his travels in 1805 and 1806.

How the portraits look

The Met calls the portraits "icons of power", with dark, rich colours, idealized features and formal, fixed poses. The V&A gives a political reason for the look. The dynasty's founder, Agha Muhammad, had been castrated as a child by his father's enemies, so Fath-Ali Shah had himself painted as a young, slim-waisted man with a long, full beard. Robinson describes Mihr Ali's finest portrait, which he placed in the Negarestan Museum in Tehran: the king stands full-length and life-size in his tall crown and a robe of gold brocade, holding a jewelled staff topped by the hoopoe, the bird of King Solomon. Robinson also notes that Mihr Ali's early portraits give the king a short neck and a round face, and that his later ones are more flattering.

The court painters

Fath-Ali Shah made Mirza Baba his naqqash-bashi, or painter laureate. According to Robinson, Mirza Baba painted the lacquer covers, the illumination and two portraits for a manuscript of the king's poems that was given to King George III of Britain and which Robinson places in the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. His rivals for royal portraits were Mihr Ali, Abdallah Khan and Muhammad Hasan Khan. Abdallah Khan's best-known work was a mural covering three sides of a hall in the old Negarestan Palace. Muhammad Hasan Khan painted young women with soft features, often with a vase of flowers that Robinson calls "almost a trademark".

A second generation followed under Muhammad Shah, who ruled from 1834 to 1848. The leading painter of the middle of the century was Abu'l-Hasan Ghaffari, known by his title Sani al-Molk. The Met dates him to 1814 to 1866 and says Muhammad Shah sent him to Paris and Rome to study painting and printmaking. Robinson calls him "by far the most important painter" of his time. He designed and supervised a six-volume illustrated Persian translation of the Thousand and One Nights for Nasir al-Din Shah, painted seven large wall panels of the shah and his court for the Nezamiyeh palace, and was chief editor and illustrator of an official newspaper. Robinson calls his nephew Muhammad Ghaffari, titled Kamal-ol-Molk, the most notable figure in Persian painting of the later nineteenth century.

Qajar court painters named in this page, with dates and works as the sources give them

Painter	Dates in the source	Work named in the source	Source
Mirza Baba	Dated works from 1788 to 1810	Life-size portrait of Fath-Ali Shah, 1798 to 1799; the king's poems for George III	Encyclopaedia Iranica
Mihr Ali	Dated portraits 1797 to 1815	Portraits of Fath-Ali Shah for the Golestan Palace, Sind and Napoleon	Encyclopaedia Iranica; Louvre
Abdallah Khan	Born c. 1770	Mural in the Negarestan Palace; V&A portrait of Fath-Ali Shah (attributed)	Encyclopaedia Iranica; V&A
Muhammad Hasan Khan	Reign of Fath-Ali Shah	Three portraits of princes, Negarestan Museum; pictures of young women	Encyclopaedia Iranica
Abu'l-Hasan Ghaffari, Sani al-Molk	1814 to 1866	Thousand and One Nights manuscript; Nezamiyeh palace panels	The Met; Encyclopaedia Iranica
Esmail Jalayer	Trained at the Dar al-Funun	Women around a samovar, V&A	Encyclopaedia Iranica
Muhammad Ghaffari, Kamal-ol-Molk	1852 to 1940	Portraits, landscapes and scenes of daily life; founded an art school in 1911	The Met; Encyclopaedia Iranica

Women in Qajar painting

The Met, the V&A and the Encyclopaedia Iranica all describe Qajar oil paintings of women. The Met says life-size paintings in the private rooms of the palaces showed poetic and sensual subjects, including dancing girls and still lifes. The V&A owns a set of such paintings bought in 1876 and described at the time as "From the Shah's palace at Tehran". Its titles include Woman Playing a Drum, Female Tumbler, Reclining Lady Holding a Fan and Woman Carrying a Plate of Sweets. The V&A's record explains that Fath-Ali Shah's palaces were decorated with series of oil paintings built into the walls, each usually a single large figure, flattened in shape and rich in decorative detail, and that many of these series show "imaginary portraits of members of a royal harem". The two we checked are painted in oil on calico, a cotton cloth.

Robinson names painters of these pictures. Abu'l-Qasem painted three of the best pictures of young women in the Negarestan Museum, one signed and dated 1815 to 1816; because they share one architectural background and one scale, Robinson thinks they were once parts of a single long composition, possibly a wall painting of the king with ten ladies that a British traveller saw in a house at Shiraz. A later painter who signed "ya Muhammad" painted plump, moon-faced women, and Robinson points to examples in the V&A and the Negarestan Museum. The Brooklyn Museum's 1998 exhibition set out to explore "the role of women in Persian society" through paintings of women "from princesses to entertainers". In lacquer, Robinson notes, painters copied young women in European bonnets from French prints of poor quality.

Later artists have reused Qajar images of women. Our page on Iranian women artists describes how Monir Shahroudy Farmanfarmaian reworked Qajar reverse-glass painting, and the V&A and LACMA both hold photographs from Shadi Ghadirian's Qajar series of 1998. LACMA says she based the series on studio portraits of the late nineteenth century, with painted backdrops and models in vintage clothes, and added modern objects such as a Pepsi can.

Photography, printing and the Dar al-Funun

The Met says photography was introduced into Iran in the early 1840s, under Muhammad Shah, and was encouraged by Nasir al-Din Shah, who ruled from 1848 to 1896. The Frenchman Jules Richard joined the staff of the Dar al-Funun, the "Abode of Sciences", in 1851, and the Italian Luigi Pesce and the Tehran-born Armenian Antoin Sevruguin ran studios. Photographers came to replace court painters for recording ceremonies and military campaigns. The Met concludes that photography "gave a three-dimensional and realistic quality to painting": photographs served as models for paintings, and portrait painters paid closer attention to modelling, light and shade, and "the psychological nuances in their subjects".

The Dar al-Funun opened in 1851 as Iran's first institution of higher learning based on Western models. By its second decade, the Met says, it taught painting, lithography, photography and music in the manner of the European academies, although the old system of master and apprentice continued alongside it. Robinson adds that Nasir al-Din Shah, "himself an enthusiastic amateur", put Sani al-Molk in charge of its painting department. Printing also spread pictures. Lithographed books with illustrations appeared in Persia in the 1840s, and Robinson names Ali-qoli of Khoy, whose illustrated Nizami of 1848 and Shahnameh of 1850 he calls noteworthy.

Kamal-ol-Molk and the end of the period

The Met says Muhammad Ghaffari, known as Kamal-ol-Molk, changed Persian painting. He was a graduate of the Dar al-Funun and studied in Paris, Florence and Rome, where he copied the works of the old masters. Under his influence, the Met says, Qajar painting took on "a new degree of naturalism" and a greater interest in scenes of everyday life, painted alongside official portraits. The Iranica says he received the title Kamal-ol-Molk in 1892 and describes his mature style as "dignified and impressive but completely Europeanized". In 1911 he opened the Madrasa-i Sanayi-i Mustazrafa, which the Met calls Iran's first Academy of Fine Arts. Our page on modern Iranian art continues the story after him.

For a wider public, the Met notes that the late nineteenth century saw large oil paintings of religious subjects shown in public for the first time, many of them in coffeehouses. Our page on coffeehouse painting in Iran tells that story.

Lacquer, enamel and painting under glass

Qajar painters worked in several media. Robinson describes Mirza Baba working in oil, miniature, painted enamel and églomisé, which is painting on the back of a sheet of glass. Mihr Ali made large portraits of the king and his sons in églomisé. Because the paint sits behind the glass, Robinson explains, the painter had to build the picture in reverse, starting with highlights and surface details and finishing with the background colour. Few Persian examples survive because the glass breaks easily.

Painted enamel on gold was a court speciality. Robinson names Baqer, Ali and Muhammad Ja'far. Muhammad Ja'far signed a gold enamel dish dated 1822 to 1823 that Fath-Ali Shah presented to the East India Company, and Robinson places it in the V&A. The Khalili Collections hold a portrait of Fath-Ali Shah in enamels on a gold sheet 6.2 by 4.4 cm, signed by Baqir, and describe him as an artist who worked in oils on canvas, miniatures, book illumination and lacquer. Painted lacquer, on pen boxes, mirror cases and book covers, is the subject of our page on Persian lacquer painting. The favourite design on Qajar lacquer, Robinson says, was the rose and nightingale, which our page on symbols in Persian painting explains.

Where to see Qajar paintings

Many of the largest Qajar paintings remain in Iran. Robinson places major portraits and wall paintings in the Negarestan Museum and the Golestan Palace in Tehran, and Sani al-Molk's Nezamiyeh panels in the Iran Bastan Museum. The table lists the collections outside Iran that we could confirm from their own records or from a named source. Loans and gallery displays change, so check with the museum before a visit.

Museums outside Iran with Qajar paintings or Qajar painted objects, as confirmed on 27 September 2026

Museum	City	What the source says it holds	Source
Brooklyn Museum	New York	A Qajar collection founded by the curator Charles K. Wilkinson from 1970; a portrait of Ghahreman Mirza, possibly by Sani al-Molk (2009.21)	Brooklyn Museum
Smithsonian National Museum of Asian Art	Washington, DC	Portraits on canvas, lacquerwares and photographs from the Freer and Sackler collections, shown in 2018	Smithsonian
Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA)	Los Angeles	A 19th-century painted lacquer box from Iran (M.73.5.373)	LACMA
Victoria and Albert Museum	London	Portrait of Fath-Ali Shah attributed to Abdallah Khan (707-1876); a set of palace paintings of women bought in 1876	V&A
Musée du Louvre	Paris	Portrait of Fath Ali Shah attributed to Mihr Ali, 1800 to 1806 (MV 6358)	Louvre
State Hermitage Museum	St Petersburg	Oil paintings lent to Brooklyn in 1998, including a two-part battle scene and two portraits of Fath-Ali Shah	Brooklyn Museum press release, 1998
Royal Library, Windsor Castle	Windsor	Fath-Ali Shah's poems with lacquer covers and portraits by Mirza Baba	Encyclopaedia Iranica

The Brooklyn Museum's 1998 press release describes its own collection as "the most important holdings of Qajar art in North America"; that is the museum's description. Its exhibition Royal Persian Paintings then travelled to the Armand Hammer Museum at UCLA in Los Angeles and to the Brunei Gallery at SOAS in London in 1999. In Canada, the Louvre's record shows that its portrait of Fath-Ali Shah was lent to the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto for the exhibition Transforming Traditions: The Arts of 19th Century Iran, from 22 September 2018 to 10 February 2019. Our page on where to see Persian art in Canada and the USA lists other museums.

Buying Qajar art: what to check

Anyone looking at Qajar art for sale should ask three questions: how old the work is, what it is made of, and where it has been. The sources give a reason for each.

First, age. Robinson writes that, at the end of the period, miniature painting became an imitation of Safavid models, chiefly of the school of Reza Abbasi, and that it is often hard to tell a careful copy in the old style from a deliberate forgery. A dealer's date is a claim until a written condition report, a provenance record or a specialist's opinion supports it. Our page on Persian miniature painting explains how to tell a hand-painted miniature from a print.

Second, material. The Brooklyn Museum catalogues its small portrait of Ghahreman Mirza as "ink and opaque watercolor on ivory or shell", so the museum's own record gives two possible materials. Any object made with elephant ivory is regulated when it crosses the border between Canada and the United States; our page on Persian lacquer painting links to the official rules.

Third, where the object has been. A work that left Iran recently raises the sanctions questions covered on our page on how to buy Iranian art. Ask for export and import papers and keep them with the work.

Our gallery and Qajar painting

We sell original paintings by the artists we represent. The Persian painting in our gallery closest to the old court arts is the classical miniature work of Kamal al-Din Ghotb, whose page says he has practised Persian painting for 41 years and works in the classical miniature tradition in oil and gold on paper. His works are in the Kamal al-Din Ghotb collection. For portraits by contemporary painters, see our portrait paintings. Every piece ships free and insured, and every piece has a 14-day return from delivery, with a full refund and return shipping paid by us.

Frequently asked questions

What does the term Qajar painting cover?

Qajar painting covers the painting made in Iran under the Qajar dynasty, which the Brooklyn Museum dates 1785 to 1925 and the Met 1779 to 1924. The term includes life-size oil portraits and palace wall paintings, manuscript and album pages, painted lacquer, painted enamel and painting under glass. Late in the period it also covers portraits painted from photographs and the European-style work of Kamal-ol-Molk and his students.

Why were so many portraits of Fath-Ali Shah painted?

Portraits of Fath-Ali Shah served his public image. The Met says he commissioned great numbers of life-size portraits of himself and his sons for his palaces, where they formed the backdrop to court ceremonies, and sent official portraits to England, Russia and France. The V&A adds that he wanted to appear youthful, slim-waisted and heavily bearded, in contrast to the dynasty's founder, his uncle Agha Muhammad.

Who painted the portraits of Fath-Ali Shah?

The portraits of Fath-Ali Shah were painted by his court artists, above all Mirza Baba, Mihr Ali, Abdallah Khan and Muhammad Hasan Khan, according to the Encyclopaedia Iranica. Mirza Baba was his painter laureate. Mihr Ali's dated portraits of the king run from 1797 to 1815. The V&A attributes its full-length portrait of the shah to Abdallah Khan, and the Louvre attributes its portrait to Mihr Ali.

How are women shown in Qajar painting?

Women in Qajar painting appear as dancers, musicians, acrobats and attendants in large oil paintings made for the private rooms of the palaces. The V&A describes many of these as imaginary portraits of members of a royal harem, painted in series and built into the walls. The Brooklyn Museum's 1998 exhibition showed women in roles from princesses to entertainers.

How did photography change Qajar painting?

Photography changed Qajar painting by giving painters new models and a new standard of likeness. The Met says photography arrived in Iran in the early 1840s and was encouraged by Nasir al-Din Shah. Photographs served as models for paintings, paintings that copied photographs faithfully were admired, and portrait painters paid closer attention to modelling, shading and the character of their sitters.

Who was Kamal-ol-Molk?

Kamal-ol-Molk was the title of Muhammad Ghaffari, whom the Encyclopaedia Iranica calls the most notable figure in Persian painting of the later nineteenth century. The Met dates him 1852 to 1940. He studied at the Dar al-Funun and then in Paris, Florence and Rome, and brought a new naturalism and scenes of everyday life into Persian painting. In 1911 he opened what the Met calls Iran's first Academy of Fine Arts.

Who was Abu'l-Hasan Ghaffari, Sani al-Molk?

Abu'l-Hasan Ghaffari, titled Sani al-Molk, was the most important Persian painter of the mid-nineteenth century, according to the Encyclopaedia Iranica. The Met dates him to 1814 to 1866. He studied in Europe, supervised a six-volume illustrated Thousand and One Nights for Nasir al-Din Shah, painted large court panels for the Nezamiyeh palace, and edited and illustrated an official newspaper.

What is églomisé, or painting under glass, in Qajar art?

Églomisé is painting on the back of a sheet of glass, so the picture is seen through the glass. The Encyclopaedia Iranica says Mihr Ali painted large portraits of Fath-Ali Shah and his sons this way. The painter had to work in reverse, starting with highlights and details and ending with the background, and few examples survive because the glass breaks easily.

What was the Royal Persian Paintings exhibition?

Royal Persian Paintings: The Qajar Epoch, 1785 to 1925 was an exhibition organized by the Brooklyn Museum in 1998 and curated by Layla S. Diba with Maryam Ekhtiar. The museum's press release lists 106 works, including loans from the State Hermitage Museum, the V&A and the Louvre. The exhibition travelled to the Armand Hammer Museum in Los Angeles and to SOAS in London in 1999.

Where is the Louvre's portrait of Fath-Ali Shah from?

The Louvre's portrait of Fath-Ali Shah, oil on canvas and attributed to Mihr Ali, is dated 1800 to 1806 in the museum's record, under inventory number MV 6358. The Encyclopaedia Iranica says a portrait by Mihr Ali was given to Napoleon's envoy Jaubert as a present for the emperor and hung at Versailles, and the Louvre's bibliography cites Jaubert's account of his travels in Persia.

What should I check before buying Qajar art for sale?

Qajar art for sale needs three checks: age, material and papers. The Encyclopaedia Iranica warns that late Qajar imitations of Safavid painting can be hard to tell from forgeries, so ask for provenance and a written condition report. Ask what the support is, because elephant ivory is regulated at the border. Keep export and import documents, and read the sanctions rules for works that left Iran recently.

References

1. ART IN IRAN x.2 Qajar Painting. Basil William Robinson, Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published 15 December 1986; Internet Archive copy of 21 September 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The court painters, their portraits and their present locations, églomisé, enamel, lacquer, lithography, Sani al-Molk, Kamal-ol-Molk and the late decline into pastiche.
2. ART IN IRAN x.1 Art and Architecture of the Qajar Period. Jennifer M. Scarce, Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published 15 December 1986; Internet Archive copy of 25 September 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. Qajar art as rooted in Persian tradition, the rise of large oil painting, and lacquer and enamel.
3. Nineteenth-Century Iran: Art and the Advent of Modernity. Marika Sardar and Maryam Ekhtiar, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Published October 2004; Internet Archive copy of 18 November 2025. Accessed 27 September 2026. The life-size portraits, the palace setting, diplomatic gifts, the Dar al-Funun, photography, Sani al-Molk and Kamal-ol-Molk.
4. Nineteenth-Century Iran: Continuity and Revivalism. Marika Sardar and Maryam Ekhtiar, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Published October 2004; Internet Archive copy of 14 March 2026. Accessed 27 September 2026. The dynasty's dates, Fath-Ali Shah's rock reliefs and the Shahanshahnama.
5. Royal Persian Paintings, The Qajar Epoch, 1785-1925. Brooklyn Museum, exhibition page and press release of 1 June 1998. Internet Archive copy of 26 January 2025. Accessed 27 September 2026. The period dates, the exhibition's loans and tour, women in Qajar painting, and the museum's description of its own collection.
6. Portrait of Ghahreman Mirza, brother of Mohammad Shah Qajar. Brooklyn Museum, object 2009.21. Undated; Internet Archive copy of 17 October 2025. Accessed 27 September 2026. A small portrait catalogued as on "ivory or shell" and possibly by Sani al-Molk.
7. Portrait of Fath 'Ali Shah. Victoria and Albert Museum, 707-1876. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The attribution to Abdallah Khan, the size, the 1876 purchase, and the reasons for the shah's youthful image.
8. Female Tumbler. Victoria and Albert Museum, 719-1876. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The palace series of imaginary portraits of women, built into the walls and painted on calico.
9. Woman Playing a Drum. Victoria and Albert Museum, 712-1876. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. A second painting from the same group.
10. Portrait de Fath Ali Shah (English: portrait of Fath-Ali Shah). Musée du Louvre, Département des Arts de l'Islam, MV 6358. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The attribution to Mihr Ali, the date, the Jaubert bibliography and the loan to the Aga Khan Museum.
11. The Prince and the Shah: Royal Portraits from Qajar Iran. Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art. Exhibition of 24 February to 5 August 2018. Accessed 27 September 2026. The Freer and Sackler holdings of Qajar portraits, lacquer and photographs.
12. Portrait Miniature of the Qajar Ruler, Fath 'Ali Shah. Khalili Collections, JLY 1231. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. An enamel portrait on gold signed by Baqir.
13. Untitled from the Qajar Series. Shadi Ghadirian, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.2008.35.9. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The photographer's Qajar series and its sources in nineteenth-century studio portraits.
14. Qajar (series). Shadi Ghadirian, Victoria and Albert Museum, E.351-2010. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The V&A's photographs from the same series.
15. Box. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, M.73.5.373. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. A 19th-century painted lacquer box from Iran.
16. Kamal al-Din Ghotb. VanArtHub. Undated. Accessed 27 September 2026. The painter's training, years of practice and medium.

Checked 27 September 2026. If something here is out of date, write to us and we will correct it.